Part 2: Apostates to Apostles
Vulgate to the King James Bible
During the subsequent 300 years following the life, death and resurrection of Christ, and after the persecutions of the Christians had ceased, many scrolls, parchments and other records were in circulation. They were written in Hebrew, Coptic, Greek and Latin. Many were authentic and verifiable, while others were of suspicious origin and even fraudulent. As the language of the people changed from Greek to Roman, a great need arose for scripture based in the language of the people.
In 382 A.D., under the direction of Pope Damascus, Jerome reluctantly accepted the daunting commission to produce a New Latin Version of the scriptures. Daunting because he recognized he would be judging ancient books by various authors scattered all over the known world and attempting to edit, correct, approve or disapprove them. Challenging because he knew he would be antagonizing almost everyone by assuming a position of ultimate authority of not only these sacred writings and their meanings, but of correctly translating them from their original languages. On the positive side, he saw his work as a means of making the scriptures available to the common people in their own tongue. Hence the name “Vulgate” which means language of the common people. Secondly, he felt a clearer and more accurate edition would enhance the preaching of the priests. And thirdly, he hoped it would give the ascetics or hermits a common reference record for their serious study of the words of God.
Jerome went to Bethlehem for the Hebrew texts for his translation of the Old testament and to the Greek for his translation of the New Testament. Nonetheless he counselled with many experts, scholar and rabbis to gain their opinions before he began his translations. This work of Jerome served as the standard scriptures for the Catholic Church until its revision, called Sixto-Clement Project in 1592, under Pope Clement VIII.
Books included in the original Vulgate are those found in many translations of the Bible today, plus the following:
Tobias (or Tobit)
Judith
Wisdom (or Wisdom of Solomon)
Ecclesiasticus (or Sirach)
Baruch
Letter of Jeremiah
Additions to Daniel: Song of the Three Children, Story of Susanna and Bel and the Dragon
1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees
Apocrypha: Prayer of Manasseh, 1 Esdras and 2 Esdras
Apocrypha
The word Apocrypha means “doubtful authorship”. Jerome was of course faced with the huge and difficult problem of what to accept as authentic Holy Scripture and what to reject as Apocrypha, or not authentic. Even some of the texts which he accepted into his New Latin Scriptures Edition, were cut out by scholars when it was revisited 1200 years later at the Council of Trent in 1563
Alcuin Bible
When Charlemagne came to power in the late 8th Century, he appointed Alcuin, the greatest teacher England had produced to that date, to revise the Vulgate. Over the years soppy copying and other “gross blunders” had crept into the many wide-spread copies resulting in non- uniformity. The corrections were mostly minor and Alcuin’s Bible, as it became known, was a genuine attempt to bring the texts back to the purity of the works of Jerome.
Paris Bible
Before the 13th century, Bibles were typically produced in multiple volumes. It simply could not be written in a single tome due to its size and the materials used. However, with the rise of universities and the demand for copies of the Bible, a system was developed by Stephen Langton who taught at the Paris University. It allowed the entire Bible to be produce in a carriable-size single book. This was accomplished by organizing the individual books of the Bible into chapters, while showing them in double columns on each page. The heading on the top of the pages indicated which book was being viewed. This volume became known as the Paris Pocket Bible and became the standard format for manuscripts throughout Europe. Mass-produced, this single volume version ranks as one of the most important developments in the history of the Bible. It introduced many of the format elements of the Bible that are still in use today.
Wycliffe Bible
There was great opposition to the Bible being printed in the language of the common people. The Church had total power over the lives of the people. First by the military authority of the Emperor and secondly through threats of eternal damnation through the Ecclesiastical Authority of the Pope.
The reasoning was founded on the belief that it was the Church, through the Pope or Priest, who determined a man’s salvation. But if the people possessed the power and knowledge which comes from the truth in the Bible, and sufficient literacy to read it for themselves, they could look to salvation through Christ and bypass the clergy altogether.
The motivation of the translators was not a struggle for power. Rather they wished that every man could have the knowledge to find his own salvation through the reading of the words of Christ in his own language
A group of men banded together under the direction of John Wycliffe between 1382 – 1395. Known as the Lollards, this group of pre-reformation protesters rejected many of the Catholic teachings. At the time most people could not read and therefore had only a minimal knowledge of the Bible. Even that was gleaned through what was orally read to them from the pulpit by Priests. Wycliffe worked from the Latin Vulgate to make an English translation. Though not authorized, this Bible became very popular. But Wycliffe paid for its creation with his life. Burned at the stake, his remains were later exhumed and thrown into the river.
There were two versions of Wycliffe’s translations. The first was made while he was alive. The second is a revision of the first made ten to twelve years later by John Purvey, another member of the Lollard’s group. These translated versions did not have much effect upon the efforts of the later translators, because of the fact he had used the Vulgate from which to translate instead of going back to the Hebrew and Greek texts. But the efforts of Wycliffe and Purvey did help ignite the flames of the reformation and set the stage for the later King James translation of the Bible.
Gutenberg Bible
The Gutenberg Bible was the first bible to be produced using the newly-invented Gutenberg printing press.The printing of the first Bible in the 1450’s was a big event. While it was not the first book printed, it was the first major printing of any book in Europe. Whereas books had taken years to laboriously write or copy by hand, Gutenberg was able to produce 180 copies in 3 years. That is 60 a year or 5 per month, which is more than 1 per week. Each double sheet had 42 lines per page. To do this production, he used movable metal type. This set off an explosion of printed material which could be cheaply, mass produced and quickly distributed to an audience of hungry, eager and waiting people.
Erasmus Bible
Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536) was a scholar and contemporary of Martin Luther. Instead of taking sides with either the Catholic Church or the reformer Martin Luther, he condemned them both with equal intensity. Erasmus’ intention was to make a collation between the Greek and Latin texts and in the process translated the first Greek translation of the New Testament.
– His first edition unified the Greek and Latin traditions.
– His second edition was used by Martin Luther for his translation of the Bible in the German language.
– His third edition was used by William Tyndale in his first translation of the Bible into English.
– His Fourth edition included a translation of Revelations.
– His fifth, published in Latin was quickly translated into many other languages.
In 1550 Robert Stephanus (also known as Robert Estienne) printed a version of the Erasmus text with a critical apparatus (showing variant readings in various manuscripts) which proved invaluable to scholars and future translators alike.
Luther Bible (1522-1534)
It was Martin Luther’s goal to enable every German speaking Christian to read the Bible in his own language. Using the translation of Erasmus, second Edition, Luther translated directly into German without reference to the Latin Vulgate.
To Romans 3: 28, Luther added the word “alone”. This rendered the thought as follows: “Man is justified without the help of the works of the law, alone by faith.” It actually reflected what most translators of his time believed.
He was contemptuous of the Books of Esther, Hebrews, James, Jude and the Revelations of John. But these influences of his translation were perhaps unintentional.
Most of the Germanic tribes spoke their own dialect and could not communicate with each other. The German language that he employed raised the level of language German people spoke and was a unifying force upon them as a German people nationally. He not only broke the dominance of the Catholic Church but influenced the translations of Tyndale and Coverdale.
Tyndale Translations 1530-35
While Tyndale did not produce a Bible as such, he did translate the entire New Testament and 50% of the Old Testament from Greek and Hebrew texts and had them mass produced and distributed before he was executed. As a result, these translations were used by John Rogers and Myles Coverdale. to publish the book under the pseudonym Matthew Bible. In addition, it was Tyndale’s translations that influenced every English translation that occurred thereafter.
Tyndale’s last words were in a prayer that God “Would open the King of England’s eyes” which was of course, what happened, evidenced by the printing of the Matthew Bible shortly thereafter.
Coverdale Bible
Printed by Myles Coverdale in 1535, it became the first complete English translation of the Bible. Using translations of Tyndale, Martin Luther, and his original translations from the Vulgate, the publication received official Royal consent making it also the first translation of the Bible in English to receive such distinction.
Matthew Bible
Printed in 1537 by John Rogers under the pseudonym “ Thomas Matthew”, it contained the New Testament as translated into English by William Tyndale and as much of the Old Testament as he had been able to translate before he was burned at the stake, and the translations of Myles Coverdale from German and Latin. It also contained the Apocrypha, except the Prayer of Manasseh.
Thus, the Matthew Bible forms a vital link in the history of the Bible’s translation into English. It was the work of three individuals, working from different sources and in different languages. Both John Rogers and William Tyndale were burned at the Stake while Myles Coverdale was employed by Thomas Cromwell to work on the Great Bible of 1539 and was thus spared.
Much of this work was used for the compiling of the King James Version and it was William Tyndale’s beautiful and masterful use of the English language that we treasure as we quote his epic phrases from our current King James Bible.
The Great Bible
So called, because of its size. King Henry the VII ordered such a copy of The Great Bible to be set up in each English Church in 1539, to be read in services and to be accessed and read by its parishioners. It was chained so that it could not be carried away. The first authorized English version of the Bible, it contained the words of Tyndale so far as he had able to complete his translations into English (The same Tyndale who had been burned at the stake for his translations which were now to bring him fame.) The untranslated balance, including the Apocrypha, was translated by Myles Coverdale from the Latin Vulgate and German sources. It is also sometimes referred to as Cromwell’s Bible or Cranmer’s Bible (after Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury) because of Cranmer’s notation in the preface in the book.
Geneva Bible
Under the reign of Queen Mary I, a group of Protestant scholars fled to Geneva to avoid persecution. Led by William Wittingham, the group consisted of such men as Myles Coverdale, Christopher Goodman, Thomas Sampson, William Coby and Anthony Gilby, began another English translation that would become known as the Geneva Bible. Wittingham focused on the New Testament and Gilby on the Old Testament.
The tone of the translation was much more assertive and forceful. In the margins was an elaborate system of commentary and notes. There were study aids: Maps, illustrations, indexes of names and topics, tables and an introduction before each chapter. It was also more affordable and of convenient size.
One of the illustrations of Adam and Eve showed Adam with an Elizabethan mustache and goatee. When Adam and Eve discovered their nakedness, it reported they made “breeches” to cloth themselves. This of course was later corrected by changing the word to “aprons”. Despite these humorous anachronisms the book’s popularity soon swept away the Great Bible when it was finally allowed into England in 1579.
Bishop’s Bible
Citing excuses such as the notes and comments of the Geneva Bible, which they detested, the Bishops complained it was too Pro-Calvinistic. In addition, they objected because the Great Bible had been partially translated from the Vulgate rather than the original Hebrew and Greek, which rendered it “severely deficient”.
As a result, the High Church Bishops of the Church of England began a move to make and circulate their own version of the Bible. In 1568 the Church of England gave its authority for them to do so. The version became known as the Bishop’s Bible. After a great deal of kerfuffle, tinkering and jiggering, their finished product still resembled The Great Bible. Their arguments didn’t achieve their aims and the end product was equally unconvincing.
The Bishop’s Bible failed to replace the Geneva Bible with all its aids, notes, comments, illustrations and chapter introductions. These were the very things that appealed to the many faithful who were becoming familiar with the Bible for the first time. The Bishop’s Bible was not reprinted and was replaced by the new King James Version in a few short years.
Douay-Rheims Bible
In the face of mounting pressure from the Protestant reformation, an attempt was made by English exiles to a college in Douai, France, to fortify English Catholics in upholding their own faith. A translation of the Vulgate into English was published 1592. Called the Rheims-Douay Bible it underwent a correlation with the Bishop’s Bible. Then in 1610, because of the heavy Latin context, a New Version was made by Bishop Richard Challoner taking the King James Version as its base. Further Revision was done by Bernard McMahon between 1783- 1810 in Dublin.
McMahon’s version is the source of the modern generation of translations such as:
The Jerusalem Bible
New American Bible Revised Edition
Revised Standard Edition
Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition
The Douay-Rheims Bible is still the Bible of choice of most traditional, English-speaking Catholics today.
King James Bible 1611
When James the VI of Scotland, became James I of England, upon the death of Queen Elizabeth, he inherited a Kingdom that resembled a spent battlefield of religious wars between Protestants and Catholics. Competitors and dissidents, even their favored versions of scriptures, meant to be the source of guidance to peace and understanding, were contested or rejected, flaunted or slandered. There seemed to be no common ground. James instinctively recognized that if he was to rule at all he would have to first untie this Gordian Knot. The Puritans were threatening to form a new country, the Protestants were in favour of exterminating all Catholics, the Royalists decreed Kings were meant to rule by Biblical sanction and would not accept any concession of their position The Catholics smouldered with bitter hatred since their demise under Queen Elizabeth I and longed for their repatriation. The scriptures they favoured were symbolic icons of their differences, so when it was suggested at the first council of religious leaders in 1603 that a new Bible should be created which united them all, James seized upon the idea as the solution.
Brilliantly, King James commissioned 54 or so of the top religious scholars, drawn from the ranks of all the contesting groups, except the Catholics. They had been pushed from their favored position thanks to Queen Elizabeth’s rival to the throne, Mary Queen of Scots, and because of the carnage “Bloody Mary” had inflicted on England in the name of the Catholic faith, they would not be granted an opportunity to repeat it again.
The selected scholars were divided into 6 groups and each was given a section of the Bible to focus on. Drawing on all the resources and previous translations now in their possession, the task took eight years before the restrictions in their mandate had been met.
1/ No bothersome notes were in the margins.
2/ A clearly understood, common-use language was employed.
3/ The text was accurate.
4/ It embodied the responsibilities inherent in the calling of mortal kings, making them answerable to God.
5/ It had appeal to all ranks of society from the highest to the lowest.
6/ It would stand as THE word of God unto Man.
In all it was possessed of only one gross error, it was shot through with spelling and clerical mistakes. The most glaring of all caused it to be given the nickname of “The Wicked Bible” because a reference in Exodus 20; 14 omitted the word “not“ from the seventh commandment. It read as follows: “Thou shalt commit adultery.”
While it amused most readers, the printers were heavily fined.
The King James Version did not become the most popular Bible overnight. Many continued to read the Geneva Bible because of it aids, maps and commentary. The Bishop’s Bible, while favoured by the Bishops, had far too many Latin words for the common man to understand, so it presented no competition at all. Yet by the late 1600’s the King James Version had just about replaced all other versions. Most of the translations used were from William Tyndale – he who was so tragically and cruelly put to death for his never-failing determination to make the Bible available to everyone. The King James Version has been edited and revised several times, including in 1769, 1881, 1901and 1952.
After these many years, it still remains the most published book in the English language and has become embedded in the English language. It has been termed “the greatest monument to English prose” and praised for its simplicity, its dignity, its power, its happy turns of expression, the music of its cadences and the felicities of its rhythms.”
It was complicit in the uniting of all English-speaking nations including the Americas. We owe its compilers and translators an immense debt of gratitude and appreciation. It must be a great sense of satisfaction for each of them to know that through their work, words and sacrifices God spoke to their fellow men — in their day and continuing still even today.